Has anyone ever seen any numbers/analysis on whether or not use of the C/C++ restrict keyword in gcc/g++ actual provides any significant performance boost in reality (and not just in theory)?
I've read various articles recommending / disparaging its use, but I haven't ran across any real numbers practically demonstrating either sides arguments.
EDIT
I know that restrict is not officially part of C++, but it is supported by some compilers and I've read a paper by Christer Ericson which strongly recommends its usage.
The restrict keyword does a difference.
I've seen improvements of factor 2 and more in some situations (image processing). Most of the time the difference is not that large though. About 10%.
Here is a little example that illustrate the difference. I've written a very basic 4x4 vector * matrix transform as a test. Note that I have to force the function not to be inlined. Otherwise GCC detects that there aren't any aliasing pointers in my benchmark code and restrict wouldn't make a difference due to inlining.
I could have moved the transform function to a different file as well.
#include <math.h>
#ifdef USE_RESTRICT
#else
#define __restrict
#endif
void transform (float * __restrict dest, float * __restrict src,
float * __restrict matrix, int n) __attribute__ ((noinline));
void transform (float * __restrict dest, float * __restrict src,
float * __restrict matrix, int n)
{
int i;
// simple transform loop.
// written with aliasing in mind. dest, src and matrix
// are potentially aliasing, so the compiler is forced to reload
// the values of matrix and src for each iteration.
for (i=0; i<n; i++)
{
dest[0] = src[0] * matrix[0] + src[1] * matrix[1] +
src[2] * matrix[2] + src[3] * matrix[3];
dest[1] = src[0] * matrix[4] + src[1] * matrix[5] +
src[2] * matrix[6] + src[3] * matrix[7];
dest[2] = src[0] * matrix[8] + src[1] * matrix[9] +
src[2] * matrix[10] + src[3] * matrix[11];
dest[3] = src[0] * matrix[12] + src[1] * matrix[13] +
src[2] * matrix[14] + src[3] * matrix[15];
src += 4;
dest += 4;
}
}
float srcdata[4*10000];
float dstdata[4*10000];
int main (int argc, char**args)
{
int i,j;
float matrix[16];
// init all source-data, so we don't get NANs
for (i=0; i<16; i++) matrix[i] = 1;
for (i=0; i<4*10000; i++) srcdata[i] = i;
// do a bunch of tests for benchmarking.
for (j=0; j<10000; j++)
transform (dstdata, srcdata, matrix, 10000);
}
Results: (on my 2 Ghz Core Duo)
nils@doofnase:~$ gcc -O3 test.c
nils@doofnase:~$ time ./a.out
real 0m2.517s
user 0m2.516s
sys 0m0.004s
nils@doofnase:~$ gcc -O3 -DUSE_RESTRICT test.c
nils@doofnase:~$ time ./a.out
real 0m2.034s
user 0m2.028s
sys 0m0.000s
Over the thumb 20% faster execution, on that system.
To show how much it depends on the architecture I've let the same code run on a Cortex-A8 embedded CPU (adjusted the loop count a bit cause I don't want to wait that long):
root@beagleboard:~# gcc -O3 -mcpu=cortex-a8 -mfpu=neon -mfloat-abi=softfp test.c
root@beagleboard:~# time ./a.out
real 0m 7.64s
user 0m 7.62s
sys 0m 0.00s
root@beagleboard:~# gcc -O3 -mcpu=cortex-a8 -mfpu=neon -mfloat-abi=softfp -DUSE_RESTRICT test.c
root@beagleboard:~# time ./a.out
real 0m 7.00s
user 0m 6.98s
sys 0m 0.00s
Here the difference is just 9% (same compiler btw.)
Does the restrict keyword provide significant benefits in gcc / g++ ?
It can reduce the number of instructions as shown on the example below, so use it whenever possible.
GCC 4.8 Linux x86-64 exmample
Input:
void f(int *a, int *b, int *x) {
*a += *x;
*b += *x;
}
void fr(int *restrict a, int *restrict b, int *restrict x) {
*a += *x;
*b += *x;
}
Compile and decompile:
gcc -g -std=c99 -O0 -c main.c
objdump -S main.o
With -O0, they are the same.
With -O3:
void f(int *a, int *b, int *x) {
*a += *x;
0: 8b 02 mov (%rdx),%eax
2: 01 07 add %eax,(%rdi)
*b += *x;
4: 8b 02 mov (%rdx),%eax
6: 01 06 add %eax,(%rsi)
void fr(int *restrict a, int *restrict b, int *restrict x) {
*a += *x;
10: 8b 02 mov (%rdx),%eax
12: 01 07 add %eax,(%rdi)
*b += *x;
14: 01 06 add %eax,(%rsi)
For the uninitiated, the calling convention is:
rdi= first parameterrsi= second parameterrdx= third parameter
Conclusion: 3 instructions instead of 4.
Of course, instructions can have different latencies, but this gives a good idea.
Why GCC was able to optimize that?
The code above was taken from the Wikipedia example which is very illuminating.
Pseudo assembly for f:
load R1 ← *x ; Load the value of x pointer
load R2 ← *a ; Load the value of a pointer
add R2 += R1 ; Perform Addition
set R2 → *a ; Update the value of a pointer
; Similarly for b, note that x is loaded twice,
; because a may be equal to x.
load R1 ← *x
load R2 ← *b
add R2 += R1
set R2 → *b
For fr:
load R1 ← *x
load R2 ← *a
add R2 += R1
set R2 → *a
; Note that x is not reloaded,
; because the compiler knows it is unchanged
; load R1 ← *x
load R2 ← *b
add R2 += R1
set R2 → *b
Is it really any faster?
Ermmm... not for this simple test:
.text
.global _start
_start:
mov $0x10000000, %rbx
mov $x, %rdx
mov $x, %rdi
mov $x, %rsi
loop:
# START of interesting block
mov (%rdx),%eax
add %eax,(%rdi)
mov (%rdx),%eax # Comment out this line.
add %eax,(%rsi)
# END ------------------------
dec %rbx
cmp $0, %rbx
jnz loop
mov $60, %rax
mov $0, %rdi
syscall
.data
x:
.int 0
And then:
as -o a.o a.S && ld a.o && time ./a.out
on Ubuntu 14.04 AMD64 CPU Intel i5-3210M.
I confess that I still don't understand modern CPUs. Let me know if you:
- found a flaw in my method
- found an assembler test case where it becomes much faster
- understand why there wasn't a difference
The article Demystifying The Restrict Keyword refers to the paper Why Programmer-specified Aliasing is a Bad Idea (pdf) which says it generally doesn't help and provides measurements to back this up.
Note that C++ compilers that allow the restrict keyword may still ignore it. That is the case for example here.
I tested this C-Program. Without restrict it took 12.640 seconds to complete, with restrict 12.516. Looks like it can save some time.
来源：https://stackoverflow.com/questions/1965487/does-the-restrict-keyword-provide-significant-benefits-in-gcc-g